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العربية 简体中文 français português русский español email twitter facebook pinterest linkedin james lind library illustrating the development of fair tests of treatments in health care home about the library topics essays records articles menu home about the library topics essays records articles search illustrative timeline hippocrates (5th century bce) more than two millennia ago, the greek physician hippocrates stressed that a competent researcher must ensure that his starting point is knowledge of what has already been discovered. view the jll record → al-razi (10th century ce; 4th century ah) in the 10th century, the persian physician abu bakr muhammad ibn zakariyaʾal-razi (rhazes) recognized the need for an untreated control group when assessing the effects of a treatment. view the jll record → ibn sīnā (c.1012 ce; c.402 ah) in the 11th century, the persian physician ibn sina (avicenna) stressed that both the theoretical and practical parts of medicine are science, one dealing with the principles of medicine, the other with how to put those principles into practice. view the jll record → bacon, roger (1266) in the 13th century, the english franciscan monk roger bacon, often regarded as england’s first scientist, asserted that ‘without experiment nothing can be sufficiently known’. view the jll record → petrarca f (14th century) in 1364, in a letter to his fellow poet bocaccio, the italian francesco petrarca proposed an experiment to assess whether people would be better off avoiding rather than seeking medical treatment. view the jll record → paré a (1575) in the 16th century, the french military surgeon ambroise paré exploited natural and planned experiments to test treatments for burns. view the jll record → hidalgo de agüero, bartolomé (1604) at the end of the 16 th century, the spanish surgeon bartolomé hidalgo de agüero collected statistics showing that dry treatment of wounds resulted in fewer deaths than the orthodox, wet method. view the jll record → bacon f (1645) in the 17 th century, the english scientist francis bacon, pointed out that positive and negative results of experiments should be accorded equal weights. view the jll record → van helmont jb (1648) in the 17 th century, the flemish physician jean-baptiste van helmont proposed casting lots to decide which patients should be treated by orthodox physicians with blood letting and purging, and which by him without these treatments. view the jll record → nettleton t (1722) early in the 18 th century, thomas nettleton, a physician in halifax, england, compiled figures to compare the death rate from natural smallpox with that following inoculation. view the jll record → clifton f (1732) at the beginning of a century during which british use of quantified, tabulated data became widespread, francis clifford designed tables to record illnesses, treatments, and outcomes. view the jll record → cheselden w (1740) in the mid-18 th century, the english lithotomist william cheslden drew attention to the importance of taking account of the age of patients when assessing survival after operations for bladder stones. view the jll record → lind j (1753) in 1747, james lind, a scottish naval surgeon faced with uncertainty about which of many proposed treatments for scurvy to use, compared six of them in a prospective controlled trial. view the jll record → cullen w (1772) in manuscript notes of his clinical lectures, the scottish physician william cullen describes how he used ‘a pure placebo’ in an attempt to comfort a dying patient. view the jll record → millar j (1779) the scottish physician john millar showed the results of treatment for fevers in tables comparing death rates. view the jll record → mesmer fa (1781) franz mesmer, the austrian doctor who claimed to be able to heal patients by manipulating ‘animal magnetism’, proposed a fair comparison of his methods with those of his detractors, by drawing lots to decide which patients should be allocated to each of the comparison groups. view the jll record → alanson e (1782) edward alanson, a surgeon in liverpool, described and evaluated a new method of performing limb amputations using a skin flap to cover the stump. view the jll record → commission royale. bailly a (1784) antoine lavoisier, benjamin franklin and others in paris assessed the effects of franz mesmer’s animal magnetism by blindfolding patients to whom it was applied. view the jll record → black w (1788) as the 18th century drew to a close, the british physician william black reviewed how collecting, analyzing and presenting evidence about the effects of treatments had evolved. view the jll record → fordyce g (1793) in the transactions of a society for the improvement of medical and chirurgical knowledge , the british physician george fordyce reviewed the progress made during the 18th century in collecting and publishing data about medical care. view the jll record → sutton d (1796) during the second half of the 18 th century, daniel sutton became an extremely successful smallpox inoculator, who used experiments to inform the development of his technique. view the jll record → haygarth j (1800) at the end of the 18th century, john haygarth, an english physician, did placebo controlled trials to test the therapeutic claims made by elisha perkins for his ‘metallic tractors’. view the jll record → cooper a (1801) at the beginning of the 19 th century, the british surgeon astley cooper demonstrated the dramatic effect of tympanotomy in restoring hearing in certain kinds of deafness. view the jll record → percival t (1803) percival 1803: percival noted that, when no treatment is known, the interests of the public require a search for new remedies, “scrupulously and conscientiously governed by sound reason, just analogy, or well authenticated fact”. view the jll record → lesassier hamilton a (1816) in 1816, the british army surgeon alexander lesassier hamilton reported a controlled trial done during the peninsular war to assess the effects of bloodletting for fever. view the jll record → hawkins fb (1829) in a book entitled the elements of medical statistics published in 1829, francis bisset hawkins welcomed the replacement of unquantified clinical impressions with statistical analyses assessing the effects of treatments. view the jll record → löhner g et al (1835) in 1835, a society of truth-loving men in nuremberg conducted a randomized, blinded trial to assess whether homeopathic provings could be distinguished from snow water. view the jll record → louis pca (1835) in 1835, pierre-charles-alexandre louis compared mortality rates among parisian patients with pneumonia who had received prompt treatment with bloodletting with other patients who had been treated later in the course of their disease. view the jll record → gavarret ldj (1840) in 1840, the french physician and statistician jules gavarret published a book on statistical analysis of treatment tests, stressing the importance of estimating uncertainty and calculating ‘limits of oscillation’ associated with estimates of treatment effects. view the jll record → forbes j (1846) in 1846, the founding editor of british and foreign medical review , john forbes, was unable to find any evidence that homeopathy was useful, but concluded that the evidence supporting orthodox medicine was little better. view the jll record → tessier jp (1852) in the mid-19 th century, jean-paul tessier used the parisian hospital system to organize a carefully controlled comparison of homeopathic treatment with allopathic treatment. view the jll record → balfour tg (1854) in the mid-19 th century, thomas graham balfour, a british army surgeon in charge of an orphanage, used alternate allocation - ‘to avoid the imputation of selection’ – in research to assess claims that belladonna was protective against scarlet fever. view the jll record → semmelweis i (1861) in 1861, ignaz semmelweis, a hungarian doctor working at the vienna maternity hospital, published

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